Compare and Contrast the Development of B and T Cells

Compare and Contrast the Development of B and T Cells The epithelial surfaces of the body serve as an effective barrier against most microorganisms, and they are rapidly repaired if wounded. Adaptive immunity is initiated when an innate immune response fails to eliminate a new infection, whereby an activated antigen presenting cells (APCs) bearing pathogens antigens are delivered to the draining lymphoid tissues. An adaptive immune response differs from the innate immunity in its ability to target structures that are specific to particular strains and variants of pathogen. T cells are produced in the bone marrow. They are transported still, as pro-thymocytes to the thymus where they undergo the process of maturation and selection. The regulation of T cell maturation in the thymus is termed central tolerance. During gestation, most T cells generated bear the gamma/deta T cell receptor (TcR) on their surface. In the adult, most T cells bear the alpha/beta TcR. The newly formed TcR then, has to be tested for recognition of self-MHC/peptide. The T cells are tested at a stage of development known as double positive, meaning that they bear both CD4 and CD8 receptors on their surface. Cells with TcRs that recognize self-MHC/peptide with very low affinity will die. This process is known as death by neglect. Cells with TcRs with medium affinity for MHC receive survival signals and undergo a process known as positive selection. Finally, cells which receive a high affinity signal via their TcR die by apoptosis, a process known as negative selection. Cells that in teract with MHC class I become CD8 positive T cell, and those that interact with MHC class II become CD4 positive T cells, before migrating out into the peripheral lymphoid system (Wood P, 2006). Mature B cells, like T cell, are also develop form pluripotent stem cells. However unlike T cells lymphocytes, B cell maturation occurs in the bone marrow. There are four different stages of B cell development: pro-B, pre-B, immature B, and mature B cells. During its development, B cells acquire B cell surface marker expression such as B220, CD19, CD20, etc. as well as antigen receptors. The stromal cells lining the bone marrow provide essential growth signals to developing B cells, including cytokines such as IL7 and cell to cell contact, via VLA4/VCAM and Kit/SCF. During B cell development, gene segment rearrangements take place, just like in T cells where TcR rearrangements (central tolerance) also occur. However, for B cells, the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene locus (variable-V, joining-J and diversity-D segments), situated on chromosome 14, rearranges. In haematopoietic stem cells, the Ig heavy chain genes are in germline configuration (Kurosaki T et al., 2009). As B cells deve lop to pro-B cells, a D-J recombination is the first gene rearrangement to take place. The intervening DNA is normally deleted from the chromosome as a circle. Gene rearrangements are mediated by recombinase activitng genes, RAG proteins. As the developing B cell proceeds from pro- to pre-B cell stage, a V-DJ gene arrangement takes place to form the VDJ coding block that encodes the variable domain on the antibody heavy chain. Gene rearrangement takes place on both copies of chromosome 14 in a developing B cell, but once a productive VDJ block has been assembled on one chromosome 14, rearrangement ceases on the other chromosome, ensuring only one type of Ig is produced by any single B cell. This process is known as allelic exclusion. If a developing B cell fails to make a productive VDJ block, it will fail to produce antibody heavy chain and die in the bone marrow (Murphy K et al, 2008). T and B cell activation: T cell activation takes place in draining lymph nodes (also spleen) close to site of infection. T cell recognizes antigen on MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) molecules becomes activated and differentiates to effector cells. Effector T cells migrate to site of infection and carry out effector functions. The T lymphocytes arrive through venules, and cross through the endothelial to the lymph nodes. Antigen presenting cells such (APC) such as dendritic cells, and macrophages presented antigens to T cells. On recognition of the antigen, a low affinity interaction is formed. These T cells then leave lymph node though the lymphatic system. Those T cells that recognize the antigens wall with high affinity will be retained and the process of proliferation and differentiation occurs. However, initial B cell activation takes place in T cell zone of secondary lymphatic tissues (i.e. in lyhmph nodes). Mostly IgM producing plasma cells are produced at this state. B cells, unlike T cells, ar e activated by the ineraction with antigen-specific T cell, by linked recognition. Antigen-activated B cell migrates to B cell area of lymph nodes to form organized germinal centres, where additional B cell differentiation processes take place. It is important to note that T cells recognize the peptide, while B cells recognize the coat protein. For T and B lymphocyte activation 2 signals are hypothesized to be required. Firstly, the antigen stimulus signal and secondly, the co-stimulatory stimulus. The absence of the second signal results in anergy or apoptosis. CD28/B7 interaction is the co-stimulatory signals for T cells while CD40/CD40 ligand, on the activated T cells, interaction is for B cells. For both T and B lymphocytes, in it resting G0 cell cycle, the cell appear to have a large nucleus, with little cytoplasm and show little evidence of organelles. However, when these cells enter G1/S/G2 cell cycle, cell shows an increase in cell size, chromatin de-condensation is seen. Cell division occurs rapidly, generating effector cells of either T or B lymphocytes. Effector T cells include Th1, Th2 and T regulatory, as well as T cytotoxic cell and memory T cells. On the other hand, effector B cells include plasma cell and memory B cell. T and B cell effector functions: B cell response to T-dependent protein antigen results in germinal centres formation in B cell areas of lymph nodes, and specialized processes such as Ig class-switching, somatic mutation and affinity maturation, memory B cell and plasma cell generation take place there. Emerging form germinal centres are somatically mutated and class-switched B cells, which no longer just produce IgM. Memory B cells are long-lived, resting and re-circulating cells, responsible for immunization part which helpto generate rapid and vigorous immune response on second encounter for that specific antigen. Plamablast cells migrate to other sites such as bone marrow, and become plasma cells, producing large amounts of secreted antibody. Some of which can live for long periods. The effector functions of B cells refer to what antibodies do after their contact with the antigen. The antibody effector functions include neutralization, complement fixation (IgM, IgG1/2/3), oposonization and antibody dependent cel l-mediated cytotoxicity. In contrast, T cell effector functions differ significantly from B cell effector functions. Antigen presenting cells present peptide via MHC which can either interact with CD4+ or CD8+ T cells. Helper T cells are defined by the cytokines they produce. Naà ¯ve CD4+ T cells (Th0), on interaction with APC, can differentiate to Th1 or Th2 cells, depending on the cytokine environment. Th1 cells co-ordinate inflammatory immune responses to intracellular pathogens while Th2 cells help B cells to make antibodies required for immune responses to extracellular pathogens, this is known as humoral immunity. Th1 and Th2 cells both act to promote the generation of more leukocytes. Besides Th0/Th1/Th2, other CD4+ T cell subsets exist (Zhu J et al., 2010). Resting T cells can differentiate into activated helper T cell, as well as activated cytotoxic T cell (CD8+ T cell). Initially, CD8+ T cells interact with potential target cells via low affinity/non-specific interactions between adhesion molecule s on the T cell (LFA-1 and CD2) and the target cell (ICAM1, ICAM2). This interaction has no effect on the cytoskeleton of the T cell and is a transient interaction unless recognition of specific peptide:MHC complexes occurs. If peptide:MHC I complex is present, the affinity of the adhesion molecule interaction increases and there is clustering of T cell receptor and associated molecules at the point of contact with the target cell forming the immunological synapse. This also signals for cytoskeletal rearrangements organized by the microtubule organizing complex which focuses the cytotoxic granules of the T cell at the point of contact with the target. Notice here, that T cells, unlike B cells do not produce antibodies against antigens. Granules containing perforin and other enzymes including granzymes are released and induce the activation of the cathepsin pathways in the target cell leading to apoptosis. CD8+ T cells can also kill target cells via the Fas/FasL pathway which also in duces apoptosis (Peter EJ 2007). In conclusion, adaptive immune responses occur when individual lymphocytes capable of responding to antigen proliferate and differentiate to become an antigen-specific effector cells and memory cells. The process of lymphocyte cell cycle progression, proliferation and differentiation in response to antigen and stimuli is known as lymphocyte activation. B cell activation is initiated by the ligation of the B cell receptor (BCR) with antigen and ultimately results in the production of protective antibodies against potentially pathogenic invaders. While naive or memory T cells encounter foreign antigen along with proper co-stimulation they undergo rapid and extensive clonal expansion. In human, this type of proliferation is fairly unique to cells of the adaptive immune system and requires a considerable expenditure of energy and cellular resources.

Media And Democracy

?Media democracy is a set of ideas advocating reforming the mass media, strengthening public service broadcasting, and developing and participating in alternative media and citizen journalism. The stated purpose for doing so is to create a mass media system that informs and empowers all members of society, and enhances democratic values. It is a liberal-democratic approach to media studies that advocates the reformation of the mass media with an emphasis on public service broadcasting and audience participation, through the use of citizen journalism and alternative media channels.A media democracy focuses on using information technologies to both empower individual citizens and promote democratic ideals through the spread of information. [1] Additionally, the media system itself should be democratic in its own construction [2] shying away from private ownership or intense regulation. Media democracy entails that media should be used to promote democracy[3] as well as the conviction t hat media should be democratic itself;[4] media ownership concentration is not democratic and cannot serve to promote democracy and therefore must be examined critically.[5] The concept, and a social movement promoting it, have grown as a response to the increased corporate domination of mass media and the perceived shrinking of the marketplace of ideas. The term also refers to a modern social movement evident in countries all over the world which attempts to make mainstream media more accountable to the publics they serve and to create more democratic alternatives The concept of a media democracy follows in response to the deregulation of broadcast markets and the concentration of mass media ownership. In their book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, authors Edward S.Herman and Noam Chomsky outline the propaganda model of media, which states that the private interests in control of media outlets will shape news and information before it is disseminated to the public through the use of five information filters. [6] In this way, the construction of the mass media as a for-profit enterprise behaves in a way that runs counter to the democratic ideals of a free press. Media democracy advocates that corporate ownership and commercial pressures influence media content, sharply limiting the range of news, opinions, and entertainment citizens receive.Consequently, they call for a more equal distribution of economic, social, cultural, and information capital, which would lead to a more informed citizenry, as well as a more enlightened, representative political discourse. A media democracy advocates: Replacing the current libertarian media model[clarification needed] with one that operates democratically, rather than for profit Strengthening public service broadcasting Incorporating the use of alternative media into the larger discourse Increasing the role of citizen journalism Turning a passive audience into active participantsUsing the mas s media to promote democratic ideals The competitive structure of the mass media landscape stands in opposition to democratic ideals since the competition of the marketplace effects how stories are framed and transmitted to the public. This can â€Å"hamper the ability of the democratic system to solve internal social problems as well as international conflicts in an optimal way. â€Å"[7] Media democracy, however, is grounded in creating a mass media system that favours a diversity of voices and opinions over ownership or consolidation, in an effort to eliminate bias in coverage.This, in turn, leads to the informed public debate necessary for a democratic state. [8] The ability to comprehend and scrutinize the connection between press and democracy is important because media has the power to tell a society’s stories and thereby influence thinking, beliefs and behaviour. [9] The concept of â€Å"democratizing the media† has no real meaning within the terms of politic al discourse in Western society. Contents [hide] 1 Media ownership concentration 2 Media democracy movement 3 Feminism and media democracy 4 Internet media democracy 5 Criticism 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8. 1 Books 9 External links9. 1 Journals and periodicals 9. 2 Other Media ownership concentration[edit] A key idea of media democracy is that the concentration of media ownership in recent decades in the hands of a few corporations and conglomerates has led to a narrowing of the range of voices and opinions being expressed in the mass media; to an increase in the commercialization of news and information; to a hollowing out of the news media’s ability to conduct investigative reporting and act as the public watchdog; and to an increase of emphasis on the bottom line, which prioritizes infotainment and celebrity news over informative discourse.Cultural studies have investigated changes in the increasing tendency of modern mass media in the field of politics to blur and confuse the boundaries between journalism, entertainment, public relations and advertising. [10] A diverse range of information providers is necessary so that viewers, readers and listeners receive a broad spectrum of information from varying sources that is not tightly controlled, biased and filtered. [11] Access to different sources of information prevents deliberate attempts at misinformation and allows the public to make their own judgments and form their own opinions.[12] This is critical as individuals must be in a position to decide and act autonomously for there to be a functioning democracy. [13] The last several decades have seen an increased concentration of media ownership by large private entities. In the United States, these organizations are known as the Big Six. [14] They include: General Electric, Walt Disney Co. , News Corporation, Time Warner, Viacom, and CBS Corporation. A similar approach has been taken in Canada, where most media outlets are owned by n ational conglomerates.This has led to a reduction in the number of voices and opinions communicated to the public; to an increase in the commercialization of news and information; a reduction in investigative reporting; and an emphasis on infotainment and profitability over informative public discourse. The concentration of media outlets has been encouraged by government deregulation and neoliberal trade policies. In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 removed most of the media ownership rules that were previously put in place. This led to a massive consolidation of the telecommunications industry. Over 4,000 radio stationswere bought out, and minority ownership in TV stations dropped to its lowest point since 1990, when the federal government began tracking the data. Media democracy movement[edit] Several activist groups have formed on both local and national levels in the United States and Canada in response to the convergence of media ownership. Their aim is to spread awareness about the lack of diversity in the media landscape, and direct the public to alternative media. Additionally, these groups press for political solutions to the FCC in the United States and the CRTC in Canada to â€Å"oppose any further media consolidation.† [15] In the United States, the non-profit Media Access Project is a public interest law firm that advocates media democracy by â€Å"protect[ing] freedom of expression, promote[ing] universal and equitable access to media outlets and telecommunications services, and encourag[ing] vibrant public discourse on critical issues facing our society. â€Å"[16] The group has raised numerous concerns with the neoloiberalization of media in the United States in recent years, particularly with regards to media ownership, net neutrality laws, and access to the wireless spectrum.In Canada, OpenMedia.ca is a similar group that promotes media democracy by encouraging open communication systems through online campaigns, events, and workshops. In particular, the group's â€Å"Stop The Meter† campaign to petition against proposed usage-based billing was the largest online appeal in Canadian history. [17] Feminism and media democracy[edit] Though the model aims to democratize the opinions expressed within the mass media as well as the ownership of media entities themselves, feminist media theory argues that the media cannot be considered truly inclusive or democratic insofar as they rely on the masculine concepts of impartiality and objectivity.[18] Creating a more inclusive and democratic media would require reconceptualizing how we define the news and its principles. [18] According to some feminist media theorists, news is like fictional genres that impose order and interpretation on its materials by means of narrative. [19] Consequently, the news narrative put forward presents only one angle of a much wider picture. [19]It is argued that the distinction between public and private informatio n that underpins how we define valuable  or appropriate news content is also a gendered concept. [19] The feminist argument follows that the systematic subversion of private or subjective information excludes women's voices from the popular discourse. [19] Further to this point, feminist media theorists argue there is an assumed sense of equality or equalness implicit in the definition of the public that ignores important differences between genders in terms of their perspectives.So while media democracy in practice as alternative or citizen journalism may allow for greater diversity, these theorists argue that women's voices are framed within a masculine structure of objectivity and rationalist thinking. [20] Despite this criticism there is an acceptance among some theorists that the blurring of public and private information with the introduction of some new alternative forms of media production (as well as the increase in opportunities for interaction and user-generated content ) may signal a positive shift towards a more democratic and inclusive media democracy.[21] Some forms of media democracy in practice (as citizen or alternative journalism) are challenging journalism's central tenants (objectivity and impartiality) by rejecting the idea that it is possible to tell a narrative without bias and, more to the point, that it is socially or morally preferable. [22]Internet media democracy[edit] The World Wide Web, and in particular Web 2.0, is seen as a powerful medium for facilitating the growth of a media democracy as it offers participants,† a potential voice, a platform, and access to the means of production. â€Å"[23] Because the web allows for each person to share information instantly with few barriers to entry across a common infrastructure, it is often held up as an example of the potential power of a media democracy. The use of digital social networking technologies to promote political dissent and reform lends credibility to the media de mocracy model.This is apparent in the widespread protests in the Middle East and North Africa known as the Arab Spring where social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube allowed citizens to quickly connect with one another, exchange information, and organize protests against their governments. While social media cannot solely be credited with the success of these protests, the technologies played an important role in instilling change in Tunisia,[24][25] Egypt,[26][27] and Libya.These acts show a population can be informed through alternative  media channels, and can adjust its behaviour accordingly. Criticism[edit] Critics of media democracy note that in order for the system to function properly, it assumes each member of society to be an educated and active participant in the creation of media and exchange of information. In countries with a high illiteracy rate, for example, it would be next to impossible for average citizens to take part and fully engage with media, and adjust their behaviour accordingly in society.[28] Instead of promoting democratic ideals, this would in turn fracture society into an upper-class that actively participates in creating the media, and a lower-class that only consumes it, leaving individuals open to the manipulation of information or media bias. This is not far from Nancy Fraser’s critique of the Habermasian public sphere, with regards to the bracketing of personal inequalities. [29] There is also a problem when trying to blend the role of journalists and traditional journalism within the scope of a media democracy.Although many media outlets are privately owned entities, the journalists whom they employ are subject to intense training, as well as a strict code of ethics when reporting news and information to the public. Because a media democracy relies heavily on public journalism, alternative media, and citizen engagement, there is the potential that all information exchanged be treated as equal by the p ublic. Not only would this negatively effect an individual's agency in a democratic society, but run counter to the notion of a free press that serves to inform the public.

Language Learning & Teaching

‘Mother tongue’, ‘first language’, or ‘L1’ is the language that the child usually learns first by the process of interacting with the parents, family members and the society.   This language is usually not acquired by the process of formal education.   It is passed on from one generation to another by the process of interaction and communication.   It is important to know that the first language of the individual need not always be the dominant language.   For example, if the family relocates from one place to another, then there would automatically be a shift in the dominant language of the child, as the language for social communication would also change.   Suppose a child has very good skills at learning the first language, automatically the skills for learning the second language would be good, as it suggests various cognitive functions required for learning the language (such as thinking, memory, etc).   On the other hand, if th e child develops poor skills at learning the first language, automatically he/she would find it difficult to learn the second language and even others (Clark, 2000).‘Second language’ or ‘L2’ is a language that is different from the first language and is usually acquired by the process of formal education in school.   Usually, the second language is a language other than the first language or the mother tongue.   As in several parts of the world, a greater amount of importance is given to English, which has been the basis for international communication. A lot of research is being conducted to determine the manner in which the second language could be acquired, learnt and retained.   In some parts of the world, the second language is beginning to dominate the first language.   This is because of the greater amount of use of the second language in international communication, corporate sector and as a medium of instruction.   The term second languag e was given as it initially suggested the level of comprehension, understanding and the fluency of an individual with that particular language in comparison with the first language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).  Hylenstam (1992) conducted a lot of research to determine the manner in which the second language and the first language skills were acquired and retained.  He found that after the age of 7 years, the child often found it difficult to learn a second language and obtain the skills required as good as that of the first language.   The individual frequently demonstrated a lot of grammatical errors whilst using the second language, after it was acquired following the age of 7 years (Clark, 2000).   However, research conducted by Hylenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) also found that that there was no exact cut-off period at which an individual would find it difficult to learn the second language, and term it as good as the first language.   Even during adulthood, the second l anguage skills could be acquired as good as before the age of 7 provided the individual made an effort and was motivated to learn and acquire the second language (Clark, 2000).Usually, in each and every nation of the world, the child would be learning two languages.   The United States is one of the few nations in which the children would be usually learning one language that is English.   According to Cummins, learning a second language did not affect the development of the child.   However, social interactions helped in development.   Studies based on cognitive functioning and learning abilities have demonstrated that during the phase of mental growth and development, there was no negative effect if the child learnt one language or two.   Children were able to learn a second language easily and utilise it in the same manner as the first language for communication, questioning, thinking and socialising.   All the knowledge gained from the first language could easily be transferred and utilised in the second language by the child (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Children cannot learn a second language within a definite period of time.   Strong evidence is currently not available to suggest that children can learn a second language within a short period of time.   Evidence is also currently not available to demonstrate that children would be learning a second language faster than the adults (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).During the process of learning a second language, the child may experience several problems including improper pronunciation, not able to use grammar appropriately or poor comprehending capability.   It is important to note that several factors such as environmental, learning facilities, educational, ability to socialise, age, sex, motivation, personality type etc, play an important role in the second language development of the child.   It is for this reason that some children learn second language faster, whilst others take a long er time (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).One of the important factors that need to be considered for acquiring a second language is the age of learning.   This plays an important role compared to several other factors including motivation, cultural circumstances, opportunities etc.   The child should also get a positive response from others whilst learning the second language.   In the native home, some children may find it difficult to learn a second language.   Children whilst learning the first and the second language usually have similar attitudes.   In learning the first language, the child would usually do so at a younger age, and hence the complications and the fear of making mistakes are lesser.   The second language learning age is usually higher than the first language, and hence the complications and the fear of making mistakes are usually present.   Children tend to use the native pattern of pronouncing words (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).In 1995, Collier was able to demonstrate that even adolescents and adults had some amount of competence in learning a second language.   Children do have the cognitive competence of learning languages and this would enable them to learn and retain a language better than an adult.   A few researchers have contradicting views about the second language learning.   They feel that once a second language is learnt within a very short period of time and at a very young age, then the skills initially acquired of the first language is lost (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994).   Some of these researchers hence feel that the second language should not be introduced at a very young age to children and hence both the first and the second language need to be imparted (McLaughlin, 1973).Once the first or the second language is learnt, the outcome is usually different.   For example, once the first language is learnt, due to the interactions between the society, parents and family, the fluency and the comprehension improv es compared to the second language.   It may be equally difficult for learning either the first language or the second language, but the role of variables is even greater for the second language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).For learning the first and the second language, it is very important that an environment conducive for learning exists.   Communication between the parents, family, friends and society is very important.   The cognitive ability can be developed and the language skills could be improved through positive interactions in the language.   The child should be allowed to express themselves freely with the parents.   The language learning process should be enabled through positive interactions between the parents and the child.   The existent language base and real-life situations play an important role.   The child should be able to use the language at the school, home or in social settings.   The child should be able to use and develop both the languages equally.   For example, some children may not be able to use the second language at home due to inability of the family members to understand it.Besides, some children may also find it difficult to use the first language in school, as they may have another language as a medium of instruction.   This may hamper the learning process.   It is important that the child uses the languages in many instances as possible so as to develop the skill and the knowledge required.   Whilst learning the first and the second language, formal education would only be playing a passive role.   The main ingredient for the success at developing skill in a new language is positive interactions and usage of that language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Some children may find learning a second language a very tedious task.   Especially those children, who have problems in learning the first language, often develop similar problems in learning the second language.   For learning the language, such problems frequently develop as it is very important that the child develops strong relationships with the parents so that such problems can overcome patiently and gradually.   The use of the second language at home should in no manner affect the cognitive development and the learning process.New experiences with the second language and the use of new ideas would definitely help in improving the cognitive processes.   It is frequently seen that once the cognitive development has occurred with the first language, the same skills could be utilized in attaining the skills required for the second language.   Frequently, children who have developed tremendous skills with the first language (due to the cognitive advancement) may find it very easy to learn a second language.   Studies have even demonstrated that children able to excel in the first language may do equally well with the second language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Reading is another area in which the child should deve lop a habit in order to gain competence of the second language.   It helps to improve comprehension, understanding, thinking, flow of ideas, creative expressions, memory etc.   Usually, the first language is learnt through day-to-day communication and the second language is learnt through reading.   However, both communication and constant reading are required to develop skills in learning the language.Thus it can be said that development of the first language would in fact supplement the learning of the second language.   Positive interactions with family, parents, friends and society would help in developing skills with the second language.   Besides, reading would also aid in language development.   The manner in which the first and the second language is learnt is much similar to one another.   It need not always be that the first language dominates the second language.   The dominating language usually depends on the culture the child is exposed to.   In child ren below the age of 7 years, the process of learning the second language is much easier. In adults and adolescents, motivation plays a very important role in second language acquisition.References:Clark, B.A. (2000), First- and Second-Language Acquisition in Early Childhood. [Online], Available: http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/pubs/katzsym/clark-b.html, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].Ellis (1994). Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. [Online], Available: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/L1%20and%20L2.htm, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].Klein, W., & Jankowski, B. (1986), Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.NWREL (2003). Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory. [Online], Available: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].

Influences on Behavior and Psychological Disorders...

Bipolar Disorder Outline PSY/103 Bipolar Disorder Outline I. Introduction A. Bipolar Disorder Common Behaviors †¢ Start your study assignment by reading the directions for the assignment cautiously so that you undoubtedly understand your instructor’s hopes. B. How The Bipolar Disorder Affects sleep, psychoactive drugs or mediation, and hypnosis on a person. C. How the disorder affects memory. †¢ Genetic Influences †¢ Memory Misrepresentations D. Character Theories †¢ Psychodynamic speculation †¢ Social-Cognitive speculation E. Therapies utilized to treat bipolar disorder †¢ Cognitive behavioral treatment†¦show more content†¦Such researches, yet, do not give information on which or how many genetic materials are involved† (Mental Health, 2009). †¢ Organic Influences ââ€" ª Genetic Factors Hereditary (plays a part in the conduction of vulnerability) ââ€" ª Every age group is affected mutation (an only mutation has all to say concerning whether one will get the disease). â â€" ª Bipolar Disorder is not infectious It cannot be pass on from one person to another It is besides known as hectic-sadness is a psychological sickness †¢ Memory Distortions ââ€" ª Genes little and lasting memory ââ€" ª Lithium ordinary memory distortions ââ€" ª Swiftness of information dispensation ââ€" ª Craze psychological elasticity D. Personality theories: †¢ Psychodynamic assumption- highlights the influence of the insensible mentality and childhood experiences on character. †¢ Societal-Cognitive assumption: This viewpoint says that every one of us has a distinctive individuality as we have individual histories of interactions with the surroundings and since we think about the world and understands what happens to us. E. Therapies used to treat bipolar disorder: †¢ Cognitive behavioral therapy in bipolar disorder: Based on the thought that what we imagine influences our outlooks andShow MoreRelatedMental Health For Children And Adolescents2684 Words   |  11 Pagesconsider formative standards, the developmental status of the adolescent, and the way that psychological health issues for this populace are implanted in family, associate, and peer connections. Mental Health in Adolescents Everywhere you turn mental health is the talk of the world. To better understand this growing epidemic, it is said that mental health involves your emotional, psychological, and social well-being (CDC 2009). Have you ever been stressed out and lost your trainRead MoreInfluence on Behaviors and Psychological Disorders Outline2473 Words   |  10 PagesInfluence on behaviors and Psychological Disorders Outline PSY/103 Influence on behaviors and Psychological Disorders Outline I. Introduction â€Å"Recent data estimate the overall prevalence of depression at about 11.1% of the American population, or nearly 35 million individuals (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). A predictive models suggest that up to 50% of the population will experience at least one episode of depression during their lives† (Life Extension, 2014). DepressionRead MoreIntroduction Of Drugs And Alcohol Essay1392 Words   |  6 Pages Table of Contents Introduction to Drugs and Alcohol 2 Overview 2 I. Workplace Factors 3 II. Workplace Performance Behavior 4 III. Workplace Role 5 RECOMMENDATION 6 Workplace Policies and Drug Testing 7 Policy and Regulations on Alcohol and drug abuse 7 Employee Education/Health Promotion 8 Works Cited 9 â€Æ' Employer’s Guide for a Drug-free Workplace Introduction to Drugs and Alcohol In order to understand drug and alcohol use, it is important to be clear about what we mean by the termsRead MoreComprehensive Exam Questions Masters in Psychology3545 Words   |  15 PagesComprehensive Exam Jan11, 2011 Social Psychology Prosocial behaviors are often difficult to explain.   What do we mean by â€Å"prosocial behavior† and why might it be considered unusual behavior?   What is meant by â€Å"altruism?† Explain what bystander effect means, how helping behavior is influenced by diffusion of responsibility and what the 5 steps to decide to help in an emergency are.   Include an example of an altruistic behavior. Prosocial behavior refers to someone acting to help another individual, withRead More2301 Final Exam Workbook Essay6573 Words   |  27 PagesDefine psychology. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Key Terms psychology Exercises 1. Put a check mark by each statement that is true regarding psychology. ___X__ Psychologists study human behavior. ___X__ Psychologists study animal behavior. ___X__ Psychologists study emotions and mental processes. _____ Psychology and common sense lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental processes. _____ Psychology is not a science. Objective 1Read MoreEssay about 2301 Final Exam Workbook 2 6510 Words   |  27 Pages Objective 1.1 Define psychology. Key Terms Psychology- scientific study of behavior and mental processes Exercises 1. Put a check mark by each statement that is true regarding psychology. _√____ Psychologists study human behavior. _√____ Psychologists study animal behavior. _ √___ Psychologists study emotions and mental processes. _____ Psychology and common sense lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental processes. _____ Psychology is not a science. Objective 1.2 Define theRead MoreFormulations in Cbt3885 Words   |  16 Pagesformulation is referred to as a CBT keystone, and is considered essential to the practice of CBT. It is the blueprint to help both therapist and client figure out what is going on. It’s a foundation of CBT because it describes and explains clients presentations and it’s at the heart of understanding client’s difficulties (Beck, 1976) in ways that inform interventions. Case formulation can be described as the process of using sound theoretical frameworks to organise interview data, observational data andRead MoreThe Role of the Environment in Personality Development of Children2968 Words   |  12 PagesAbstract Various components influence the overall development of children. It is not simply the society in which each child is born and lives but certain and identifiable parts of the society. Although every aspect of child development involves genetics, environmental factors contribute significantly in the personality development of children. Subcultures of race/ethnicity, economic status, faiths/religion, and locality/region, in addition to particular groups such as friends and family distinctlyRead MoreCapstone Project9055 Words   |  37 Pagescontribute to premature death. Physical activity is determined to be an important factor in improving the quality of life as well as quantity of life for these patients. The main point in my research was to show how the mental health nurse can influence the patient’s perspective of physical health as well as support it by promoting the physical activity and assisting the patient in identifying ways to incorporate physical health in their daily routines. In the first article the argument is madeRead MoreA Case Study Of A Client Case Of Recurring Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( Adhd )2837 Words   |  12 PagesThe objective of this paper is to present a case study of a client, J.W., who was seen at Mazique Pediatric PC with a chief complaint of recurring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) -like symptoms and behavior changes. J.W. was first diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at age seven. The management process of his condition will include literature review regarding ADHD, epidemiological data, nursing and medical diagnoses with plans, treatments, evaluation with possible